Women in Entrepreneurship Business Resource Materials

Entrepreneurship Law Editorial Team

Books

Erin Albert, Single. Women. Entrepreneurs  (2011).

Abstract (from Amazon): The number of unmarried adult women actually outnumbers the number or married women for the first time in U. S. history, according to the Population Reference Bureau, in October, 2010. Women are now earning more, going to college and graduate schools more, and finding ways to become more independent. Also, according to the Kauffman Foundation, single, divorced and widowed women start more businesses as entrepreneurs than men in their respective categories. This book interviews 30 single women entrepreneurs throughout the U. S. to discern why they started their original businesses, what the perceived advantages and disadvantages are for the single woman entrepreneur, what each learned from the experience, and what advice they have for the next generation of women solopreneurs.

Candida G. Brush, WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS: A RESEARCH OVERVIEW, in THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP (Anuradha Basu et al., eds. 2006).

Abstract: This is a review of research in entrepreneurship, written by an international team of scholars, intended as a reference for academics and policy makers. It may also be a suitable text for graduate level courses.

Candida G. Brush, et al., Perspectives on Women Entrepreneurs: Past Finding and New Directions, in 1 PRAEGER PERSPECTIVES ON ENTREPRENEURSHIP (Maria Minniti, ed. 2006).

Abstract:  Volume 1, "People," focuses on the intersection between individuals and entrepreneurship, with an emphasis on the cognitive, economic, social, and institutional factors that influence people's behavior with respect to entrepreneurship.

Candida G. Brush, Nancy M. Carter, Elizabeth Gatewood, Patricia G. Greene & Myra M. Hart, CLEARING THE HURDLES: WOMEN BUILDING HIGH-GROWTH BUSINESSES (2008).

Abstract (from product description at Amazon.com):  In this book five consultants to women entrepreneurs offer systematic solutions to the challenges that face everyone who wants to start a new business as well as specific guidance for women facing their own set of obstacles. The book draws on five years of original research, performed as part of the Diana Project--a massive initiative seeking to identify and quantify the obstacles to women owned businesses. The authors review both personal and strategic factors associated with funding, growth and ultimate success, including: the founder's goals and expertise; financial resources; networks; goal-setting; management team recruitment; strategy; and more. For each, they thoroughly review the nature and sources of the obstacles, why those obstacles might differ for women; and what can go wrong--or right. They offer practical, concrete strategies and solutions for every obstacle.

Nancy M. Carter, et al., Enhancing Women's Financial Strategies for Entrepreneurial Success, in PROMOTING FEMALE ENTREPRENEURSHIP: IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATION, TRAINING AND POLICY (Nancy M. Carter, et al., eds. 2006).

Abstract (from publisher):  The Irish economy has been consistently outperforming other EU countries in its GDP, GNP, exports and employment rates. However, the recent economic downturn has led to concerns about Ireland’s economic future, and the search for a new “Celtic Tiger” has begun. Recent studies suggest that women’s businesses can make a significant contribution to the economy. Women are now setting up the so-called new economy companies, with success in high-technology, professional services and construction. Women are also starting new businesses faster than their male counterparts, and in the USA today, female entrepreneurs are responsible for 38% of all new businesses. However, in Ireland, this source of new business creation remains virtually untapped. A recent EU study shows that women make up just 15% of Irish entrepreneurs (16% in N. Ireland), the lowest level among the 14 EU countries surveyed. This paper investigates how this source of potential new entrepreneurs in Ireland can be best exploited. The research involves a small comparative study of women-led/founded businesses in both the North and South of Ireland, and determines the particular industry sectors where women are most predominant, as well as the main barriers or deterrent factors affecting women’s decision to start a business. The overall objective of the research is to identify elements that could be developed into a model (in terms of policy and support) for promoting female entrepreneurship on the island of Ireland. A consideration of Ireland’s dual economic nature and the impact of the euro on the promotion of female entrepreneurship will be among other interesting aspects considered in the study.

Minglu Chen, Tiger Girls: Women and Enterprises in the People’s Republic of China (2011).

Abstract: The last three decades of the People's Republic of China has been characterized by decentralization, marketization and privatization. What might be expected from a developing country like China with a significant number of women in the labor force? Do the traditional values of male superiority still stay the same in the background of China's great social change? The notion of 'tiger girls' seems to reflect one of the alternative paths that is now becoming available to the modern Chinese woman. The social development and changes in recent China have provided women with access to education, employment, and independent income. Consequently, they are casting off obedient and subordinate roles and gaining more and more individual power and strength outside the home. Using empirical research findings from three localities in China, Tiger Girls examines the deeper realities of women entrepreneurs in China, and by extension the role of leading women in the workforce.

Victoria Colligan, Beth Schoenfeldt & Amy Swift, LADIES WHO LAUNCH: EMBRACING ENTREPRENEURSHIP & CREATIVITY AS A LIFESTYLE (2007).

Abstract (from product description at Amazon.com):  Ladies Who Launch is the first company to define the feminine approach to launching a business and to make the connection between starting a business and bringing creativity into your life with self-esteem and happiness.  The nationally acclaimed Ladies Who Launch program has enabled thousands of women across the country to break out of 9-5 and thrive in entrepreneurial enterprises that reflect their true passions, skills, and desires.  Located in more than 40 cities in the United States, the Ladies Who Launch incubators – workshops that give women the support and encouragement they need to embark on making their dreams reality – have inspired women to start businesses, grow existing companies, and tap into their creativity to develop essential services and products and enjoy the lifestyle of their dreams while doing it.

THE DIANA PROJECT INTERNATIONAL: RESEARCH ON GROWTH OF WOMEN-OWNED BUSINESS (Candida. G. Brush et al., eds. 2006).

Abstract: Examines the dynamics of women-owned businesses. The Diana Project was established in 1999 to raise awareness and expectations of women business owners regarding the growth of their firms. The group’s research investigates the apparent disconnect between opportunities and resources in equity funding for high growth women-owned businesses.

Sandra L. Fielden & Marilyn J. Davidson, International Research Handbook on Successful Women Entrepreneurs (2011).

Abstract :  This Handbook examines successful women small business owners in both developed and emergent countries around the globe and, in particular, focuses on women entrepreneur success stories. The contributors expertly identify the issues that underpin the success of women small business owners around the globe. Each chapter provides country specific review of women's position in employment and small business ownership and addresses the structural and contextual barriers. They also highlight two cases studies about successful women business owners, and consider strategies.

Ramaswamy Ganesan, PROSPECTS OF WOMEN ENTREPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT: WOMEN ENTREPRENEURSHIP, CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING, LOCUS OF CONTROL PERCEPTION, ENTREPRENEURSHIP TRAINING AND KNOW-HOW, FACTORS AND PROBLEMS (2010).

Product Description (from Amazon): India’s food processing sector is considered as one of the largest sectors in terms of production, consumption, export and growth prospects which also widen the scope for economic development for entrepreneurship potential. Economic growth is highly indispensable for any developing country, which can be substantiated by ensuring participation of women. The government envisaged appropriate measures to empower them economically through entrepreneurship development but despite of all efforts, participation is not considerably high. The reason being individual’s personality traits and characteristics account for entrepreneurial manifestations, which is more so in case of women entrepreneurs running food processing enterprises. This paved the way to understand the potentialities of women entrepreneurs in terms of perceptions, awareness levels, and various factors and problems, which abstain and facilitate their entrepreneurial growth and development. Thus, the present study focused on congregating psychosocial profile of women entrepreneurs in food processing enterprises to provide better picture about women entrepreneurs by and large.

Mary Godwyn & Donna Stoddard, Minority Women Entrepreneurs: How Outsider Status Can Lead to Better Business (2011).

Abstract (from Amazon): Minority women start new businesses in the U.S. at four times the rate of non-minority men and women. Though minority women entrepreneurs in the United States are thriving, their stories are very seldom told, and few think of minority women as successful entrepreneurs. Minority Women Entrepreneurs gives voice and visibility to this group of business owners.

The second purpose of this book is to explain what makes these women different from the standard white, male business owners with whom most people are familiar. Through in-depth interviews and firsthand accounts from minority women entrepreneurs, the authors found that minority women use their outsider status to develop socially conscious business practices that support their communities in innovative and exciting ways. They reject the idea that business values are separate from personal values, and instead balance profits with social good and environmental sustainability. This pattern is repeated in statistical evidence from around the globe: women contribute a much higher percentage of their earnings to social good than do men. But, until now, there was no clear explanation of why. Using sociological and psychological theories, the authors explain the tendency for women, especially minority women, to create socially responsible businesses. The findings in this book suggest fresh solutions to economic inequality and humanistic alternatives to exploitative business policies. Herein lays a radically new, socially integrated model that can be used by businesses everywhere.

Daphne Halkias, Paul Thurman, Nicholas Harkiolakis & Sylvia M. Caracatsanis, Female Immigrant Entrepreneurs: The Economic and Social Impact of a Global Phenomenon (2011).

Abstract (from the publisher): Written by the Female Immigrant Entrepreneur [“FIE”] project's team of researchers, this important book begins the process of discovering why and how female driven business start-ups often seem to spontaneously emerge in adverse environments. Is it randomness, luck, or chance that determines success or failure, or vital critical forces and the inherent qualities of the women involved? The research emerging from the FIE project points to answers to questions about the integration of immigrant communities, their interaction with host economic and business environments, and the role of women in that interaction.

With findings from more than fifteen countries, from the USA with some of the world's oldest and largest immigrant communities, to African countries that are the newest destination for Asian migrants, this book will help inform social and economic policy in communities and countries searching for prosperity.

More than that, the book offers policy makers, business leaders, and those concerned with business development the chance to uncover some of the mystery around the complex phenomenon of entrepreneurship itself.

Susan Harmeling & James E. Austin, Women's World Banking: Catalytic Change Through Networks (1999).

Abstract (from publisher): Describes the evolution of Women's World Banking, an international microfinance nonprofit promoting financial access for poor women. Explores the organization's development of different types of networks to achieve its mission.

Jane Hession, WOMEN IN THE MODERN WORKPLACE: GENDER BARRIERS TO BUSINESS START-UPS (2009).

Product Description (from Amazon):  The primary focus of this research is to examine the process of venture creation among women in Ireland and the dynamics at play, which affect the nascent female entrepreneur as she embarks on this process. A fundamentally explorative study, this research addresses idea formulation, motivations for business start-up, the start-up process and the challenges or barriers explicit to the nascent female entrepreneur. This study examines three nascent female entrepreneurs who are in the process of business start-up in order to assess the barriers or challenges they have experienced or anticipate to encounter as they embark on this venture. The aim of this study is to propose a theory concerning the challenges and barriers that have the most significant effect on women wishing to enter the new venture forum.

Sarah Kitakule & Margaret C. Snyder, Above the Odds: A Decade of Change for Ugandan Women Entrepreneurs (2011).

Abstract (from Amazon): Too few books give an in-depth view of the challenges that African women face in running the enterprises which often provide the main source of support for their families. Ten years ago Women in African Economies: From Burning Sun to Boardroom, based on the lives of 74 women entrepreneurs in Uganda, helped to fill this gap. In her new book, Dr. Margaret Snyder revisits many of these women and, with her co-author Sarah Kitakule, gives a unique account of how they have coped over the past decade with trade liberalization and economic and environmental change; with drought and disease; and with tragedies and triumphs in their households and enterprises. Covering women who belong to both the informal and formal sector, farmers and traders as well as owners of small businesses, and live both in rural and urban areas, the book gives a real feel for how, through thick and through thin, women have been and remain the economic backbone of their communities and country.

T. Lavanya, WOMEN EMPOWERMENT THROUGH ENTREPRENEURSHIP (2010).

Product Description (from Amazon):  India's Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-12) has recognized for the first time that women are not just equal citizens but are agents of economic and social growth. The approach to gender equity in the Plan is based on the recognition that interventions in favor of women must be multi-dimensional.

Sahar Nasr, EGYPTIAN WOMEN WORKERS AND ENTREPRENEURS: MAXIMIZING OPPORTUNITIES IN THE ECONOMIC SPHERE (2010).

Product Description (from Amazon):  Over the past decade, Egyptian women have made significant progress in improving their economic and social status. The government s commitment to women’s empowerment is strong at the highest political levels. Yet continued disparities remain in the country’s labor market and in the business arena. Egyptian Women Workers and Entrepreneurs analyzes these disparities and makes recommendations for needed change to ensure a level playing field. This book brings together data and extensive evidence on barriers to women’s entry into business in Egypt and makes the case for actions to ensure gender equality. This book is based on a study that the Egyptian Ministry of Investment and Ministry of Manpower and Migration, and the National Council for Women requested to assist in analyzing the factors that influence women’s low participation rate in economic activities, including the labor market and entrepreneurship. Egyptian Women Workers and Entrepreneurs aims to fill the significant research gap on these subjects in Egypt as well as to provide suggestions to address continued gender inequalities.

Vivian Besam Ojong, TRANSNATIONAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP THROUGH IDENTITY: THE DYNAMICS OF RELIGION AND CULTURE AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND REMITTANCE PATTERNS AMONG GHANAIAN WOMEN IN SOUTH AFRICA (2010).

Product Description (from Amazon):  This book situates transnational entrepreneurship through identity in its more comprehensive personal context by tracking cultural transformation and brings to lens how Ghanaian women entrepreneurs negotiate their day-to-day social identities. It highlights their experiences by capturing the various means by which they express their sense of belonging as a product of their transnational activities. The recent explosion of work on transnationalism has demanded increasingly more fine- grained scholarship that unveils the micro- sociological or 'individual' and gendered level of, the at times, ongoing movement between two or more social, cultural, economic et al spaces. The study of entrepreneurship among Ghanaian women in South Africa is a critically nuanced work that explores, through sustained ethnographic contact, the spatialising and enunciation of female category of migrant entrepreneurship within South Africa.

Sue Stockdale, THE SECRETS OF SUCCESSFUL WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS (2010).

Product Description (from Amazon): There are many successful female entrepreneurs in the UK, yet most are not well known. This book shares the inspiring stories of ten successful women with lessons on overcoming challenges, gaining motivation and turning your dreams into reality. By following the author’s Seven Steps to Success you’ll be able to put what you learn to practical use. The women entrepreneurs featured include: Linda Bennett Founder of LK Bennett; Josephine Carpenter, Founder of The Big JT; Julie Meyer, Founder of First Tuesday and Ariadne Capital; Michelle Mone, designer of the UltimoT Bra; Dr Marilyn Orcharton, creator of Denplan; Geetie Singh, creator of the world’s first organic gastro pub; Dr Glenda Stone, Founder of Aurora Gender Capital Management (formerly Busy Girl); Penny Streeter, Founder of Ambition 24 hours; Helen Swaby, Founder of DeMontfort Fine Art; Yvonne Thompson CBE, Founder of the first known black-owned and run PR agency in the UK. Sue Stockdale is a motivational speaker, successful businesswoman and record-breaking explorer. She is passionate about women’s enterprise and on the Board of several organizations related to business start-up. Sue was the first British Woman to walk to the Magnetic North Pole in 1996 and has represented Scotland in athletics. She also finished runner-up in the Channel 4 show Superhuman. Sue holds an MBA in Entrepreneurship and Business Venturing.

WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS: CLASSICS AND NEW DIRECTIONS (Candida G. Brush, et al., eds. 2006).

Abstract: The Diana Project was founded in 1999 to explore the supply of and demand for growth capital relative to women entrepreneurs in the United States. The Diana Project findings have prompted great interest from policy makers, practitioners, and educators wanting to learn more about ways to increase women entrepreneurs’ receipt of growth capital by providing a better infrastructure of programs and curricula for women who wish to grow businesses.

Articles

Isabelle Agier & Ariane Szafarz, Credit to Women Entrepreneurs: The Curse of the Trustworthier Sex (2010), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1718574.

Abstract (from the authors) : Women entrepreneurs are known not only to reimburse loans swifter than men, but also to receive smaller loans. However, on average women have smaller-scope business projects and are poorer than men. A deeper investigation is thus required in order to assess the existence of gender discrimination in small-business lending. This is precisely the aim of this paper. Its contribution is twofold. Firstly, it proposes a new estimation method for assessing discrimination in loan allocation. This method uses the theoretical "double standard'' approach. Secondly, this paper applies a new methodology to an exceptionally rich database from a Brazilian microfinance institution. The empirical results point to gender discrimination. Additionally, it is shown that reducing the information asymmetry through relationship brings no remedy to the curse of the trustworthier sex.

Richard J. Boden, Jr. & Alfred R. Nucci, On the Survival Prospects of Men's and Women's New Business Ventures, 15 J. Bus. Venturing 347-362 (2000).

Abstract:  Presents a study which examined how gender differences in owner characteristics may impact the survival prospects of men's and women's new business ventures. Overview of the characteristics of business owners; Factors necessary for success in business ownership; Conclusions.

Candida G. Brush, Patricia G. Greene, Nancy M. Carter, Elizabeth J. Gatewood, & Myra M. Hart, The Use of Bootstrapping by Women Entrepreneurs in Positioning for Growth, 8 Venture Cap. J. 1-19 (2006).

Abstract (from authors):  The number of women entrepreneurs is rising rapidly and many are creating substantial businesses. For most women-led ventures, growth is funded by personal investment and debt, although a small percentage draw on private equity investment to fuel high growth. Of those that seek growth, not only do they face higher obstacles in obtaining capital, but little is known about ways they position ventures for growth. This paper addresses the question: ‘How do women develop financing strategies to prove the business concept, meet early stage milestones, and demonstrate to external investors the value and potential of their businesses?’ Data are drawn from phone interviews with 88 US female entrepreneurs seeking an equity investment to grow their businesses. The analysis examines the correspondence between bootstrapping and stage of business development. Results show significant differences in the use of bootstrap options utilized by women-led ventures depending on stage of business development. Companies that have not achieved sales were more likely to emphasize bootstrapping to reduce labour, while those companies with greater sales were more likely to minimize cost of operations. Implications for future research and education are suggested.

Elizabeth J. Gatewood, Candida G. Brush, Nancy M. Carter, Patricia G. Greene & Myra M. Hart, Diana: A Symbol of Women Entrepreneurs’ Hunt for Knowledge, Money, and the Rewards of Entrepreneurship, 32(2) Small Bus. Econ. 129 (2009).

Abstract (from authors): This Article discusses the questions and issues that prompted the founding of the Diana Project, a multi-university research program aimed at identifying factors that support and enable high growth in women-led ventures. Despite the fact that women business owners comprise a significant portion of the economy, women face challenges in acquiring the resources needed to expand their businesses. This Article details both the myths and realities associated with women’s entrepreneurship in their quest for growth. In particular, we examine the strategies that women entrepreneurs use to position their firms for growth, especially those strategies related to growth capital. Our results show that women seeking venture capital (VC) have degrees, graduate degrees, and experience that should not preclude them from obtaining financing. We also found that even though women-led businesses are frequently clustered in industries less attractive to financiers, women seeking equity funding are in the appropriate industries. Further, women spend a considerable amount of time using both formal and informal networks in their search for capital and in seeking capital. Because of the importance of the VC industry as a provider of growth capital and its reliance on its network for investment referrals, we also examined the participation and role of women as decision-makers in industry. Women’s participation in the VC industry has not kept pace with industry growth, and women have exited the industry at a faster rate than men, thus creating a significant barrier for women entrepreneurs in that it is less likely that their networks will overlap with the financial supplier networks, despite any effort they may expend networking and seeking capital.

Sandra Gottschalk & Michaela Niefert, Gender Differences in Business Success of German Start-Up Firms (ZEW - Centre for European Economic Research Discussion Paper No. 11-019, 2011), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1795228.

Abstract (from the authors): Many studies found that women-owned firms underperform when performance indicators are compared at an aggregate level. The performance gap might be attributed to gender differences in personal and firm characteristics affecting performance. However, previous studies were not able to entirely explain female underperformance in this way. There are two theoretical perspectives on the causes of female underperformance. Liberal feminist theory suggests that women lack access to relevant resources like education and business experience or financial capital. Social feminist theory suggests that women have different attitudes and values and, consequently, adopt a different approach to business.

This paper shall contribute to a better understanding of the causes of female underperformance using performance indicators related to size, growth and profitability … We find that female-founded firms perform worse for all indicators. At the same time, there are significant gender differences in many of the characteristics observed. Compared to male entrepreneurs, female entrepreneurs have a lower level of formal education, less professional experience, are part of smaller start-up teams, are more often driven by necessity, and are overrepresented in the retail and service industries and in lower-tech industries in general. These differences can explain parts of female entrepreneurial underperformance, but their contribution to the performance gap depends largely on the performance indicator considered.

Our results do not provide clear evidence for either liberal or social feminist theory. As to liberal feminist theory, we find that gender differences in founders’ resources (human capital, business partners) partly explain the performance gaps in growth and sales. But there is also evidence that the profitability gap becomes even larger when accounting for gender differences in specific resources like the number of team partners and entrepreneurial experience. As to social feminist theory, the gap in profitability itself speaks against the theory’s implication that female entrepreneurs are as efficient managers as male entrepreneurs.

We do not find evidence for gender differences in profit orientation but find that female entrepreneurs are less growth-oriented. Unfortunately, we lack information on the time resources available to male and female entrepreneurs. Thus we are unable to test the hypothesis that female entrepreneurs underperform because they are more strained by domestic responsibilities. Moreover, we lack information on personal traits like risk attitude and self-efficacy which may also affect entrepreneurial performance.

Luigi Guiso & Aldo Rustichini, What Drives Women Out of Entrepreneurship? The Joint Role of Testosterone and Culture (Centre for Economic Policy Research Discussion Paper No. DP8204, 2011), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1749845.

Abstract:  The ratio of second to fourth digit (2D4D) has been shown to correlate negatively with entrepreneurial skills and financial success. We document that in a sample of entrepreneurs, women have a lower 2D4D ratio than men, in sharp contrast with the features of the distribution in random samples. Exploiting variation across communities in indices correlated with women emancipation, we show that in regions where women are less emancipated their average DR is lower than that of men compared to regions with higher indices. This finding is consistent with the existence of gender related obstacles into entrepreneurship so that only women with well above average entrepreneurial skills find it attractive to self-select into entrepreneurship.

This finding can rationalize three facts: a) fewer women than men are entrepreneurs; b) the proportion of women among entrepreneurs tends to be higher in countries with higher women emancipation; c) women who break the barrier into entrepreneurship seem to show more masculine traits. We also find that once women enter entrepreneurship, they are equally able than man to translate their ability into outcomes for the firm.

Sibylle Heilbrunn & Liema Davidovitch, Juggling Family and Business: Work–Family Conflict of Women Entrepreneurs in Israel, 20 J. Entrepreneurship 127 (2011). 

Abstract (by the authors):  This article investigates work–family conflict of women entrepreneurs in Israel. On the basis of the resource theory maintaining that class, ethnicity and gender interact in various combinations for different groups, the article explores factors influencing the intensity of work–family conflict of Arab, immigrant and Israeli-born Jewish women. Data were collected in 2007 through a questionnaire administered to a convenient sample of 111 women entrepreneurs in Israel. Degree of family support influenced intensity of the work–family conflict for all three groups of women entrepreneurs, but those from the Former Soviet Union (FSU) experienced the lowest intensity of the conflict, which can be explained in terms of particularities of gender status in their country of origin. Work—life balance remains a major issue for self-employed women.

Seyed Jamal F. Hosseini & Gerard McElwee, Improving the Entrepreneurial Potential of Rural Women Entrepreneurs in Northern Iran, 12 Int’l J. Entrepren. & Small Bus. 1 (2010).

Abstract (from author): Rural women in the Northern Iran were surveyed in order to explore their perception about the factors that influence them in the entrepreneurial activities. The methodology used in this study involved a combination of descriptive and quantitative research. The total population was 247 rural women entrepreneurs in the Provinces of Gilan, Mazandaran and Golestan. Based on the results of the study, 67% of variance in perceptions of rural women about the factors influencing them in developing their entrepreneurial activities can be explained by education, motivation, economic and psychological/cognitive factors. The results also show that there is need for more training and education of rural women in improving their entrepreneurial activities.

Alice Hovorka & Dawn Dietrich, Entrepreneurship as a Gendered Process, 12 Int’l J.  Entrepren. & Innovation 55 (2011).

Abstract:  This paper conceptualizes entrepreneurship as a gendered process shaped by dynamic, context-specific structures in order to balance the underestimation of external factors and overestimation of individual factors in existing gender and entrepreneurship studies. It presents research from Botswana that reveals striking differences between men, women and their businesses in terms of capital, access to resources and business outcomes. It explores the broader cultural, legal–institutional and political factors that are inherently gendered and that manifest themselves in the entrepreneurial sector. In both instances, women's business endeavors are consistently subordinate to those of men and gender dynamics constantly reproduce themselves to the detriment of female entrepreneurs.

Arne L. Kalleberg &  Kevin T. Leicht, Gender and Organizational Performance: Determinants of Small Business Survival and Success,34 Acad. Mgmt. J. 136-161 (1991).

Abstract (from authors):  In this study, we examined several hypotheses on how the survival and success of small businesses headed by men and women are related to industry differences, organizational structures, and attributes of owner-operators. We found that businesses headed by women were not more likely to go out of business, nor less successful, than those owned by men. Our analyses are based on data collected annually over a three- year period from an initial group of 411 companies in the computer sales and software, food and drink, and health industries in South Central Indiana.

Fernanda Liussa, Determinants of Entrepreneurship: Are Women Different? (FEUNL Working Paper Series No. 555, 2010), available at  http://ssrn.com/abstract=1799334.

Abstract (by author) : In this paper we investigate, for the first time, how individual determinants of entrepreneurship - such as age, income, education, work status, skills, access to networks and fear of failure - differ between males and females. We conduct our exercise using individual data provided by the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM), available for 46 countries, between 2001 and 2004. The literature on entrepreneurship has uncovered differences in the rate of entrepreneurship between men and women, with women generally displaying lower entrepreneurial activity than men. This is important since, as we show, entrepreneurial activity is positively related across countries with the female to male entrepreneurial ratio. We examine total entrepreneurship rates, as well as entrepreneurship driven by opportunity and by need. We find that indeed entrepreneurial activity rates are lower for females across all but one of the countries in the sample. Looking at categorical groups – by age interval, education, work status, etc. – we find that female entrepreneurial rates are significantly lower than for males. For the first time we test for differences in the characteristics of female and male entrepreneurs and find that female entrepreneurs are slightly older, more frequently at home or not working, lower income and lower educated, and less access to business networks than their male counterparts. AS to the determinants of entrepreneurial rates themselves, the main differences across genders are the lower impact of secondary education and the larger impact of skills and fear of failure in female entrepreneurial rates relative to males. Results for entrepreneurship by opportunity and by necessity confirm the larger importance of specific skills for women creating new businesses. Our results suggest that facilitating access to business networks and specific business skills are the most powerful instruments to increase the rates of female entrepreneurship.

Emile Loza, Female EntrepreneurshipTheory: A Multidisciplinary Review of Resources (Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education, Institute of Economic Sciences, Belgrade, Serbia, 2011), available at  http://ssrn.com/abstract=1833385.

Abstract (by the author): T he author reviews academic literature regarding and otherwise relevant to the study of female entrepreneurship from across multiple disciplines. She reports that the legal academy has only minimally engaged in entrepreneurship scholarship and not at all as to female entrepreneurship. The author reviews the origins of female entrepreneurship literature and the compilations describing the emergence of female entrepreneurship as a business and social phenomenon, the women who undertook and led these endeavors, and changes in the characteristics of women entrepreneurs over time. The author also presents materials in topical sections on business structure, strategy, and performance; culture, sex, and gender; diversity; economic and social development; essentialization and masculine norms; finance; identity issues; innovation and technology; motivation; personal and professional domains; psychology; social capital; and standpoint theory.

There is a need for a unified definitional taxonomy for entrepreneurship; for greater study of innovation-driven entrepreneurship, including as an endeavor of women; for the legal academy to enter the field of entrepreneurship study, including as to female entrepreneurship, to develop a new substantive area of law; and for entrepreneurship scholars to approach their work with interdisciplinarity.

Alain Aime Ndedi, Business Unusual: Emerging Women Entrepreneurs in a Country in Economic Meltdown: The Case of Zimbabwe (2011), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1799187.

Abstract (from the author): T he Zimbabwe economy reached a peak in 1997 when the Gross Domestic Product rose (GDP) to Z$25 billion (1990 dollars) and exports exceeded US $3.4 billion. Employment was above 1.4 million. Since the late 1990s, with the political crisis caused by land reform, there has been accelerating declines in GDP. The result has been a significant deterioration in Zimbabwe’s human rights record, a breakdown in the rule of law, a furthering of Zimbabwe’s economic collapse, and a negative impact throughout southern Africa. The government of Zimbabwe is facing a wide variety of difficult economic problems as it struggles with an unsustainable fiscal deficit, an overvalued official exchange rate, hyperinflation in million percent, and bare store shelves. However, the current economic crisis has lead to the emergence of women entrepreneurs. These groups of women are closing the gap in terms of basic products supply in Zimbabwe.

This paper analyses these opportunistic entrepreneurs, their sources of capital and how they manage day-to-day pressures while involved in their business. The first part of this paper provides the key rationales of this contribution in regard to the current economic situation existing in Zimbabwe. The second part explains the concept of entrepreneurship and the characteristics of entrepreneurs. Finally a strategic framework for an effective and efficient entrepreneurial spirit is developed in order to assist these Zimbabwean opportunistic entrepreneurs to sustain their ventures.

Stephen C. Perry, A Comparison of Failed and Non-Failed Small Businesses in the United States: Do Men and Women Use Different Planning and Decision Making Strategies? 7 J. Dev. Entrepreneurship 415 (2002).

Abstract:  The primary objective of this study was to investigate the influence of gender in U. S. small business failures. A "failure" was defined as a bankruptcy with losses to creditors, and firms with fewer than 500 employees were considered “small.” Recently failed firms were selected randomly and matched with non-failed firms on the basis of age, size, industry, and location. The sampling frame was businesses listed in the Dun & Bradstreet credit reporting database. A crosstabulation was used to investigate the influence of gender on firm failure. The main conclusion regarding gender was that it does not appear to be related to the failure of small businesses in the U. S. Gender differences for both failed and non-failed firms were also investigated for contextual variables and variables having to do with planning and problems with strategy.

Suvi Salmenniemi, Paivi Karhunen & Riita Kosonen, Experiences of Women Entrepreneurs in Contemporary Russia, 63 Europe-Asia Stud. 77 (2011).

Abstract (from the authors):  This article contributes to the study of women's entrepreneurship in transition economies by examining Russian self-employed women's experiences and interpretations of gender in the context of entrepreneurship. It traces how gender articulates the opportunities for and the constraints on entrepreneurial activities in Russian society. As such, this article engages in the theoretical discussion of gendered patterns of entrepreneurship. The article employs a qualitative methodology and analyses semi-structured interviews with women entrepreneurs conducted in St Petersburg and in two towns in the Republic of Karelia during the period 2005-2006. The respondents represent small and medium-sized enterprises mainly in production, retail trade and services.

John Watson, Failure Rates for Female-Controlled Businesses: Are They Any Different? 41 J. Small Bus. Mgmt. 262-277 (2003).

Abstract (from author):  Previous research has found that female-owned businesses generally underperform male-owned businesses on a variety of measures such as revenue, profit, growth, and discontinuance (failure) rates. It has been suggested that this finding might be the result of systematic differences between male- and female-owned businesses, particularly industry differences. This paper analyzes data from a representative sample of 8,375 small and medium-sized Australian enterprises that originally were surveyed in 1994–95, with follow-up surveys in each of the subsequent three years for a subsample of businesses. The aim was to determine whether female-owned businesses exhibit higher failure rates than male-owned businesses and, if so, whether this finding persists after controlling for industry differences. The results suggest that while female-owned businesses do have higher failure rates compared to male-owned businesses, the difference is not significant after controlling for the effects of industry.

To visit Publisher’s website, click here.

Desislava I. Yordonova, The Effects of Gender on Entrepreneurship in Bulgaria: An Empirical Study, 28 Int’l J. Mgmt 289 (2011).

Abstract: The research on gender and entrepreneurship has been conducted mainly in Anglo-Saxon countries; therefore research findings may not be valid for other countries and contexts due to differences in economic, institutional and cultural characteristics. This paper presents the results of an empirical study of gender effects on entrepreneurship and factors underlying possible gender differences in entrepreneurship in a sample of 501 Bulgarian entrepreneurs. Data was collected by structured interviews and analyzed by means of regression in which a number of independent variables are controlled for. As in other countries and contexts, Bulgarian female entrepreneurs are less likely to exhibit entrepreneurial intentions than their male counterparts even after controlling for a number of characteristics of the entrepreneur, firm, and environment. Gender differences in firm size, legal form, personnel, and sector account for gender differences in entrepreneurship. The paper provides some policy implications and places the current results in respect to future research.

Online Resources

I. Elaine Allen, Maria Minitti & Nan S. Langowitz, The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) 2005 Report on Women and Entrepreneurship, published by Babson College and the London School of Business (2006).
www3.babson.edu/CWL/upload/GEM%20Womens%20Report.pdf

I. Elaine Allen & Nan S. Langowitz, Women in Family-Owned Businesses, Babson College Center for Women's Leadership & Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Co. (2003).
http://www3.babson.edu/CWL/loader.cfm?url=/commonspot/security/getfile.cfm&PageID=16380

Nancy M. Carter, Mary L. Williams & Paul D. Reynolds, Discontinuance Among New Firms in Retail: The Influence of Initial Resources, Strategy, and Gender, 12 J. Bus. Venturing 125 (1997).
http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/papers/183.pdf

Ladies Who Launch, Resources, Tools, Docs & Templates
http://www.ladieswholaunch.com/magazine/tools-docs-templates

Office of Women's Business Ownership, Entrepreneurial Development
http://www.sba.gov/aboutsba/sbaprograms/onlinewbc/index.html

Small Business Association – Women’s Business Centers, at
http://www.sba.gov/content/womens-business-centers

Small Business Association – Women Owned Business, at
http://www.sba.gov/content/women-owned-businesses

Women’s Initiative, at http://www.womensinitiative.org/aboutus/about-main.htm

From the website: “Women's Initiative is a not-for-profit agency. Our mission is to build the entrepreneurial capacity of women to overcome economic and social barriers and achieve self-sufficiency. Women's Initiative has proven that women create jobs for themselves and others, access the mainstream economy, and increase their economic self-sufficiency when they are given business planning and financing support.

Since 1988, Women's Initiative has been assisting high-potential low-income women who dream of business ownership. Through an intensive 20 session program — in English or Spanish — women are enabled to start, or expand their business.

By targeting low-income women, focusing on the needs of traditionally underserved groups including minorities, immigrants, and welfare recipients, Women's Initiative brings new resources into local communities in a unique model. Over half of the Women's Initiative community participates in our classes offered in Spanish through our Alternativas para Latinas en Autosuficiencia (ALAS) program, which boasts culturally competent services and extensive networks that propel Latina entrepreneurs into business success.

Women 2.0 – Founding Startups, at http://www.women2.org/about/

From the website:  Women 2.0 is a social venture for future founders of technology startups. Our vision is to be the global source for innovative technology startups, led by diverse founding teams.

Other Materials

Candida G. Brush, Daniel J. Monti, Amy M. Gannon & Andrea D. Ryan, Building Ventures by Building Community, presented at the University of North Carolina Conference on Minority and Women’s Entrepreneurship, Chapel Hill, NC (2006).

Elaine Reardon et al., Rand Corp., The Utilization of Woman-Owned Small Business in Federal Contracting (2007), available at http://www.rand.org/publs/technical_reports/TR442.

Nan S. Langowitz, The Top Women-Led Businesses in Massachusetts: 2003 Results(December 2004).

Tatiana S. Manolova, Candida G. Brush & Linda F. Edelman, One Size Doesn’t Fit All: Growth Expectancies of U. S. Women and Men Nascent Entrepreneurs, presented at the Annual Academy of Management Conference-Entrepreneurship Division, Atlanta, GA (2006).

Stanford School of Business, Women in Entrepreneurship
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=piIbU530ss4

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